Drinking water for poultry and other animals, ourselves included, is an important dietary requirement — and an easy one to take for granted. Under normal conditions, poultry will consume twice as much water as food — two pounds of water (about a quart) for each pound of food, though this amount will vary seasonally and with the bird’s age.
Water is not only a nutrient; it also softens food and carries it through the body, helps digestion and absorption, and cools the body as it evaporates through the bird’s lungs and air sacs. Water helps animals remove waste, lubricates their joints, and helps maintain body temperatures. Further, water is used to deliver vitamins and vaccines (though vitamin dietary supplements are probably only needed during stress conditions). Water is a major component in blood and a necessary medium for many chemical reactions that help form meat and eggs.
Table 1. Drinking Water Quality Standards for Poultry
| Contaminants | Average Levels | Maximum Acceptable | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| BACTERIA | |||
| Total Bacteria | 0/mL | 100/mL | 0/mL is desirable |
| Coliform Bacteria | 0/mL | 50mL | 0/mL is desirable |
| ACIDITY/HARDNESS | |||
| pH | 6.8-7.5 | 6.8-8.0 | < 6.0 is undesirable; < 6.3 may degrade performance |
| Total Hardness | 60-180 ppm | 110 ppm | < 60 is unusually soft; > 180 is very hard |
| NITROGEN COMPOUNDS | |||
| Nitrate (NO3) | 10 mg/L (NO3-N) | 25 mg/L | Levels of nitrate from 3 to 20 mg/L may affect performance |
| Nitrite (NO2) | 0.4 mg/L (NO2-N) | 4 mg/L | |
| NATURAL CHEMICALS | |||
| Calcium (Ca) | 60 mg/L | — | — |
| Chloride (CI) | 14 mg/L | 250 mg/L | Even 14 mg/L may be detrimental if sodium level is higher than 50 mg/L |
| Copper (Cu) | 0.002 mg/L | 0.6 mg/L | Higher levels of copper produce bitter flavor |
| Iron (Fe) | 0.2 mg/L | 0.3 mg/L | Higher levels of iron produce bad odor and taste |
| Lead (Pb) | — | 0.02 mg/L | Higher levels of lead are toxic |
| Magnesium (Mg) | 14 mg/L | 125 mg/L | Higher levels of magnesium have laxative effect. Levels > 50 mg/L may affect performance if sulfate level is high |
| Sodium (Na) | 32 mg/L | 50 mg/L | > 50 mg/L of sodium may affect performance if sulfate or chloride is high |
| Sulfate (So4) | 32 mg/L | 250 mg/L | Higher levels of sulfate have laxative effect. Levels > 50 mg/L may affect performance if magnesium and chloride are high |
| Zinc (Zn) | — | 1.5 mg/L | Higher levels of zinc are toxic |
Source: Adapted from Carter and Sneed, 1987.
Poor water quality, on the other hand, can retard growth, curtail egg production, or produce lower egg quality, even before it is readily apparent. In many cases, however, growers merely assume the security and quality of their water supply. This assumption, though it obviously fits our traditional experience, leaves the water untested until or unless it adversely affects the flock’s health and performance.
Growers who carefully monitor feed consumption, egg production, temperature, ventilation, light intensity, and mortality as factors related to optimal production should pay similar attention to water quality and to how much water their birds actually consume. It is important to have the water tested from time to time.
Water varies greatly in its quality and potential for contamination — even from wells in the same county — and the quality can be altered by extremes in its content, such as pH, bacteria, hardness and varying amounts of naturally occurring elements. Some pollutants may have little effect on the birds. It is always possible, however, that factors that do not affect the birds in one environment — for example, poultry are relatively tolerant to nitrate — will in another. Thus, nitrate has been known to affect the birds’ performance when it is present in water along with other contaminants such as bacteria. In such cases, when the proper treatment of water is begun, or changes are made in the source of the birds’ drinking water, their health and performance quickly returns to its normal levels.
Similar single or aggregated effects have been discovered in the birds’ reactions to other naturally occurring elements. Thus, feed conversion, for example, has been positively correlated to the presence of sulfate and copper concentrations in the water, and livability with potassium, chloride, and calcium. Body weight is positively influenced by drinking water hardness and dissolved oxygen, and negatively influenced by total bacteria and pH less than or equal to 6.0. Acidity (which is corrosive in piping) is usually maintained at normal levels in drinking water supplies, but some growers acidify water to help prevent bacteria.
Drinking water standards have been established for human consumption, but not for birds. It is safe to say, however, that a consistent source of high-quality water is essential for the optimum performance that today’s market conditions require. Table 1 can be used to determine poultry drinking water quality.
However, recent university and commercial field studies have shown that pH may vary from 3 to 8.4 without performance sacrifice. In some cases, performance improved.
Observe the Birds’ Drinking Habits
Water temperature and taste are important components of water quality. They make the water appealing (thereby ensuring that animals will not neglect to drink in sufficient amounts); and they also indicate other problems: the presence of contaminants (e.g., disease-causing organisms or toxic metals); an acidic imbalance, or too much sodium. While several elements can cause poor water quality, the interaction between elements is, as previously noted, more significant in water quality problems than the simple fact of their presence.
Nor is clear water necessarily safe. The presence of total dissolved solids (described in the following list) is not visible in “clear” water.
Producers should submit a water sample annually for analysis, and be particularly alert to the following characteristics that influence water quality.
- Color, taste, odor: Since drinking water should be clear, tasteless, and odorless, producers should watch for:
- A reddish-brown color that may indicate the presence of iron, which may encourage the growth of bacteria, thus leading to diarrhea;
- A blue color that indicates copper;
- A rotten egg odor that means hydrosulfide is present;
- Black water (iron sulfide) that is produced by hydrogen sulfide combining with iron
- this condition may also signal the presence of sulfate-reducing bacteria;
- A bitter, sweet, salty, or sour taste means salts, usually ferrous and manganese sulfates.
- Bacteria: No bacteria should be found in drinking water, but often coliform bacteria from feces in runoff contaminate both surface and ground water. Chlorination or filtration of the water supply can eliminate bacteria.
- Turbidity: Materials such as clay, silt, algae, or organic materials suspended in water indicate surface contamination. Filtration will remove contaminants and prevent clogged water lines.
- Total dissolved solids: Calcium, magnesium, and sodium salts are the primary contributors to TDS, which, at high levels (above 2,999 ppm), most commonly harm poultry production.
- pH: pH measures the acidity/alkalinity of water. A pH of 7 is neutral; above 7 indicates alkalinity; below 7, acidity. Poultry tolerate acid water better than alkaline. In Alabama, for example, wells range in pH from 5 to 6.5. Municipal water systems usually range from 6 to 9 in pH.
- Hardness: Hard water contains dissolved minerals such as calcium and magnesium in either bicarbonate or sulfate form, and usually does not harm poultry. High levels of magnesium sulfate, however, may increase water consumption and wet droppings and decrease production.
- Mineral contaminants: Drinking water contains many minerals, mostly in low concentrations that cause no harm. Nitrate (resulting from nitrogen contamination) can, however, be converted to a toxic form of nitrite by microorganisms found in an animal’s intestinal tract. Nitrites can decrease growth, with nitrate nitrogen levels as low as 3 to 5 mg/L shown to depress broiler growth rate. High levels of sulfates and magnesium can combine to cause a laxative effect that will result in wet litter. High concentrations of sodium or chloride may also increase water consumption and litter moisture.
- Other contaminants: Pesticides, herbicides, industrial residues, petroleum products, and heavy metals such as lead or cadmium may also contaminate drinking water. They are more difficult to detect and require more costly testing procedures.
The most telling effects of poor water quality are generally caused by the presence of bacteria or minerals. Thus, high concentrations of bacteria or toxic elements in the water affect the normal physiological processes of the animal, resulting in inferior performance. High concentrations of minerals may have less effect on the animals unless the minerals clog the water system, depriving the animals of water.
Practice Good Maintenance and Sample the Water Supply
Baby chicks are 85 percent water, adults are 55 to 60 percent water, and eggs are 66 percent water. Even a 10 percent loss of water can cause serious physiological disorders and a 20 percent loss can lead to death. Thus, maintaining a quality drinking water supply in each poultry house is important, and checking the drinkers for proper functioning should be a normal part of an operator’s daily routine. In fact, water cleanliness techniques should evolve each time an equipment line is upgraded.
Bell-type drinkers, for example, can have a high level of bacteria, but growers can use chlorination to solve this problem provided that they discontinue chlorination in cases of heat stress. And, because chlorine also kills viruses and vaccines, powdered milk should be run through the system ahead of vaccines. Discontinue water treatment 72 hours before water vaccination. To test your water: collect samples either at the well source or at the point of entry into the house; use a clean quart plastic bottle and transport the sample to a diagnostic lab. To test the bacterial levels of the water, flame the faucet with a propane torch, then run a small amount of water to cool the faucet. Collect the sample in a sterile container, and if possible avoid taking the sample in the broiler house in which birds are present. For sample preservation techniques and holding times refer to Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th edition.
Consider the Experience of Other Producers
Several demonstration projects have been done to assess the effects of poor water quality on poultry production. While the data are not conclusive, they do show the correlation between poor water quality and inferior production.
A field study conducted in Canada sampled the water supply of 33 farms (involving layer, broiler, and turkey farms). The producers were surveyed regarding any health or other problems they may have experienced in the month prior to the sampling. The parameters tested included carbonates, bicarbonates, pH, chloride, fluoride, nitrate, nitrite, sulfate, magnesium, calcium, sodium, potassium, and phosphate. The analysis revealed several instances in which the producer’s problems directly correlated with water quality impairments.
On an egg producing farm, for example, the producer reported a high incidence of diarrhea among the flock and severe problems with the egg shells. About 15 percent of the eggs had pin-sized holes in their shells. The water quality on this farm had higher levels of carbonates, bicarbonates, sodium, chloride, and pH than any other farm participating in the survey.
Research by R.E. Waggoner profiled in a January 1987 issue of Poultry Digest has also shown that changes in water quality can affect the birds’ performance. A demonstration conducted at two similar broiler houses — one performing well, the other not performing well — successfully linked the different outcomes to differences in the water supply. When the water supply was tested, the water quality was “good” at house number 1 (as was its performance); but the water at house number 2 (with unsatisfactory performance) had high concentrations of sodium and bacterial contamination.
On the same farm, another two broiler houses were connected to different water sources. One was fed from an old well, the other from a well that had only recently been drilled. When birds raised in the house connected to the new well did not thrive as expected, this house was reconnected to the old well, and its performance improved. Thereafter, high concentrations of sodium and sulfate were found in the drilled well.
Water Treatments
Simple water sanitation procedures can protect poultry’s drinking water from contamination. Producers have different opinions about which cleaning technique is most effective, but no one disputes its necessity. Some producers use cleaning agents to remove scale and slime, to tie up minerals in the water, and flush medications from the lines. These measures are followed by sanitizers to kill bacteria and algae. The most widely methods used to reduce or eliminate impurities in water quality include the following:
- Chlorination: The most common method used to treat water for bacterial contamination, chlorine can be administered through an in-line proportioner. Generally, the level at the drinker farthest from the proportioner should be 2 to 3 ppm. Chlorine levels can be easily monitored using a pool test kit. Market age birds should not be chlorinated under extreme heat stress.
- Softeners: Water softeners reduce hardness, usually by replacing calcium and magnesium ions with sodium ions. Poultry are sensitive to increases in sodium, however, so producers should consider this factor in selecting and using water softening equipment.
- Polyphosphates: These chemical compounds are used primarily to prevent buildup of scale in watering systems. They cause mineral contaminants to go into solution more readily.
- Electrical magnetic devices: These devices may keep minerals associated with scale buildup in solution by altering their electrical charges.
References
Anon. 1987. Effects of Water Quality on Broiler Performance Examined. Review of T.L. Barton et al. 1987. Feedstuffs, March 9, 1987, p. 17.
Anon. 1988. Water Quality for Poultry: What does it mean? California Poultry Letter. University of California Cooperative Extension, Berkeley, CA.
Barton, T.L., L.H. Hileman, and T.S. Nelson. 1987. A Survey of Water Quality on Arkansas Broiler Farms And Its Effect on Performance. Proceedings 21st National Meeting on Poultry Health and Condemnations, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR.
Blake, J.P. and J.B. Hess. 2001. Evaluating Water Quality for Poultry. ANR-1201. Alabama Cooperative Extension System, Auburn, AL.
Bramwell. R.K. 1997. Good clean water is necessary for birds to stay healthy. Poultry Times, September 22, pp. 27.
Byrd, J.A. and T.M. Johnson. 2001. Efficacy of water administration of sodium acid sulfate (SAS) in reducing crop contamination during feed withdrawal. Proceedings of the ANMA/AAAP Annual Meeting, Boston, MA.
Carter, T.A. and R.E. Sneed. 1987. Drinking Water Quality for Poultry. PS&T Guide No. 42. Extension Poultry Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.
Cunningham, P. 1997. Water quality linked with broiler performance. Poultry Times, Oct. 6, pp. 6-7.
Grizzle, J., T. Armbrust, M. Bryan, and A. Saxton. 1996. Water Quality I: The effect of water nitrate and pH on broiler growth performance. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 5:330-336.
––––––. 1997. Water Quality II: The Effect of Water Nitrate and Bacteria on Broiler Growth Performance. Jour nal of Applied Poultry Research 6:48-55.
––––––. 1997. Water Quality III: The Effect of Water Nitrate and pH on Broiler Breeder Performance. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 6:56-63.
K. Keshavarz. 1987. Proper Water Management for Poultry. Poultry Digest (January 1987): 19-22.
Runyan, C. and J. Bader. 1995. Water Quality for Livestock and Poultry. Guide M-112. College of Agriculture and Home Economics, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM.
Waggoner, R. and R. Good. 1984. Water quality and poultry performance. In Proceedings AVMA Annual Conference, July 1984.
Watkins, S.E. 2003. Water quality: what do we really know? Pages 32–36 in Proceedings 2003 Delmarva Breeder, Hatchery and Grow-out Conference. Delaware Cooperative Extension, Georgetown, DE.
Welch, P.A., D. Macklin, M. Burke, D. Sanders, and V.J.H. Sewalt. 2003. Case study: effect of KEMSANÔ brand liquid acidifier on broiler performance. In Proceedings of International Poultry Science Forum. World Congress Center, Atlanta, GA.